Competency Based Assessments in Education

Competency establish Assessments in EducationChapter 4Literature Review on Competence- found Assessment4.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, the researcher discusses the publications on competency-establish assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the as authentications of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later foc holds on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia.4.2 Competence-based Assessment An OverviewThe era of the fellowship -economy and globalisation requires non only individuals who possess a sound sense of specific subject matter but besides those who go germane(predicate) industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities argon necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays building multiplex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future valet de chambre capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based curriculums (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prep argon students to impact the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States surgical incision of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-c onlyed SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students moldinessiness be ready to function in collaborative settings, act complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing demeanour on the business organization. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level labor skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and cordial needs. The relationship between cultivation and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should piss got account of political and affabl e purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and program lineal procreation computer programmes from school level to university level pass been introduced to prep be and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000 Frederiksen, 1984 Baartman et al., 2007).4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based AssessmentAny forms of assessment s including CBA would usu whollyy mark water one or more of ternion basic purposes to diagnose breeding, to select students for particular provision to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006 Freeman Lewis, 1997 Ecclestone, 1996 Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, hear colleges and industriy for two main purposes to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996).4.2.1. 1 CBA for Measuring CompetenceMeasuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Gener wholey, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners nurture sufficient familiarity and skills to contribute effectively to the survive force(Canning, 2000 Ecclestone, 1997 Kerka, 1998 LPM, 2002 McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based program line is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and education beyond the basic skills., CBA app arently could can be holdd to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on find out and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much reading, companionship and grounds of eachthing. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hylan d, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basic whollyy reliable as indicators of solely in all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4.4.2.1.2 CBA for CertificationIt is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required surgical branch in the proceedingplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to ac citeation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing associate between attendance in tuition programmes, and the formal assessment and ac ascribeation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious scrap to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trai nee in a plumbing courseplumber would harbour the opportunities to acquire the necessary companionship and skills in plumbing at authorized level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required public presentation of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has accomplished the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be idealually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in get winding the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996 Ecclestone, 1997 Hyland, 1994). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the heedless(p) implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996).4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBAThere is a wide range of interpre tations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of collar different aspects the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____.Adapted wire-haired pointing griffon Nix, 1991 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 Elliot, 1994 Cotton, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996)In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple work on of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining tell apart, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpretation the show of competence argued by learners (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 gryphon Nix, 1991). The assessors contrive to observe gather and judge the render of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors corroborate to be very careful in their actions of gathering attest of competence and they contract to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student roaringly builds a drywall fashion model, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the mannikin but in whatsoever case from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be used, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satis operatory competence in building the drywall framework.McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying feature articles that lead toof roarin g cognitive process be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary writ of execution (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its homework basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include tuition in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995).The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key actor in CBA emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the as sessors to rescue even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to earn good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional labors which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from patent performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors office, then, to decide if learners performa nces meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with pertinent skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and set in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely informal and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gathering evidence from patent performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors duty then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced.In admission to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996 Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to proctor the quality of their productions and grade adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it.In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the plan for them to certify competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work oer time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work all over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to busy charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing themselves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote identity operator and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in appendix to their arrangement ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to submit wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with approximationful decision- making that suggests the multiple intel ligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Authority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific taxs as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET).A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and spring judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA c onsists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separately considered which should be specified understandably and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least(prenominal) of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace surround. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential diagnostic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficial effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963 Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such dodging of rules was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984 Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2.4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based AssessmentThe following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment.4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based AssessmentLearning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and set, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000 Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and living organisms learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our taste. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a inventionual framework in to interpretation examples of observed learning and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive possibleness which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is great, the need for it in CBA is not that appa rent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion.4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning TheoryBehaviourism is a guess of organism (may it be an beast or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean tag (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environsal stimuli (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific remark and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) rhythm system the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same remark is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Cam p, 1999).Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999 Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structural sociology (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___.Generally, condition has been identified in experimen ts by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of instruct, each yielding a different behavioural patternClassic instruct occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons top dog to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see nutriment where nutrient is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004 Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical instruct is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the band of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the anchor ring of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo 1994). The result of this experiment led to the composition of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response.Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavi our where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either modify or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner 1968).Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most eventful aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of rein forcement (Burns, 1995)..As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for kindly efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the organic law of cogitate between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the noteworthy contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treat more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge .Assessment in BehaviourismAssessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response pedal to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is stipendiary to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate sti muli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both lucid with this approach (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an beholder ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully.Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not p ay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment system should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional mental pictures of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevant aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened.Despite all the infrequent contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are tough more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour.4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning TheoryConstructivism is a theory of learning that has root in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999 Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002 Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the fancy that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the tender context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way.Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984 1998 Doolitle Camp, 1999) intimacy is the result of active cognizing by the individual Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environmentCognitio n organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality andKnowing has grow both in biological/ neurologic construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980 Garrison, 1997 Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998 Gergen, 1995).Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatioCompetency Based Assessments in EducationCompetency Based Assessments in EducationChapter 4Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment4.1 IntroductionIn this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and l ater focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia.4.2 Competence-based Assessment An OverviewThe era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States segment of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative sett ings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000 Frederiksen, 1984 Baartman et al., 2007).4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based AssessmentAny forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or mo re of three basic purposes to diagnose learning, to select students for particular provision to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006 Freeman Lewis, 1997 Ecclestone, 1996 Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996).4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring CompetenceMeasuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000 Ecclestone, 1997 Kerka, 1998 LPM, 2002 McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He be lieves that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4.4.2.1.2 CBA for CertificationIt is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She a rgues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious scrap to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has sinless the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996 Ecclestone, 1997 Hyland, 1994). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996).4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBAThere is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____.Adapted Griffin Nix, 1991 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 Elliot, 1994 Cotton, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996)In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more comp lex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995 Hager, 1994 Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be used, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to sa y that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework.McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995).The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whet her or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995 Ecclestone, 1996 Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidenc e gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely lettered and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced.In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996 Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to superintend the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it.In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing themselves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote indistinguishability and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating co mpetence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to sway wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Authority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET).A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various form s of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separately considered which should be specified intelligibly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates t he key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficial effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963 Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criter ion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984 Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2.4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based AssessmentThe following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment.4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based AssessmentLearning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000 Ormorod, 1995) . How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning a nd learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion.4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning TheoryBehaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean tag (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned in to repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999).Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999 Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structural sociology (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___.Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural patternClassic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004 Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considere d a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response.Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either settle or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner 1968).Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995)..As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge .Assessment in BehaviourismAssessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997 Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paying to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and respons e. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both legitimate with this approach (Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an reviewer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstra te the ability to meet the criteria successfully.Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation o f the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whe reas team work is essential in performing relevant aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened.Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour.4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning TheoryConstructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and under standing of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999 Murphy, 1999 Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002 Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how t echniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way.Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984 1998 Doolitle Camp, 1999) companionship is the res ult of active cognizing by the individual Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environmentCognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality andKnowing has roots both in biological/ neurologic construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980 Garrison, 1997 Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998 Gergen, 1995).Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio

Characteristics Of Good Readers

Characteristics Of Good ReadersI faeces remember those days clearly. As a student in side of meat Teaching major, I always had problems with English literature and it was hard for me to finish nurture an English bill like elephants like white hills with out(a) scuffle and unenviabley. Once our literature teacher was asking students comments and suggestions about English literature and it was a comfortably time for me to trounce about my horrors and troubles with English literature. Whenever Im yarn an English story or poem, a sense from deep inside my heart tells me that give it up You dont break to shoulder this heavy burden I said. period he had a smile on his face, our dear master answered me claim you ever seen people who are waiting for sunrise in a sweet to see the beauty of twilight? Do you know that their tolerance is rewarded by the most beautiful scene they digest open in whole their lives? This line of reasoning was so masterly stated that forced me to think of the hidden part of the iceberg So instead of giving up this beauty of twilight, I tried and true to get kn deliver with varied tapeing skills and different processes affecting it and manage the hard task of education. In fact, reading is a complex skill and good readers should approach reading from three major points of view From teaching point of view, from different strategies needed, and from different processes required for the selection of materials.Primarily, reading is a skill which is more often than not required in academic institutions. To analyze reading from teaching point of view, you should have a clear interpretation of reading. Different writers and different inquiryers have different definitions for reading. Christine Nuttall (1996) has given three groups of ideas for reading definition (p.2). The first group deals with reading as a decoding, deciphering, and identifying process. The second one sees it as an articulation, speaking, and pronunciation. The third one has some ideas like take careing, responding, and meaning for reading. We can see that this group of ideas deals with some loaded cognitive processes for reading and it is somehow related to the definition of reading by Perfetti (1984) who defines reading as thinking guided by print (qtd. in Chastain 216). Some people think that reading is a passive skill, because there is no exertion from the readers side, merely Chastain (1988) is against this sweet of definition and opposes this groups ideas by stating thatReferring to reading as a passive skill perpetuates a misconception that can only mislead students and harm their perceptions of what their decree in their reading process is. Reading is a receptive skill in that the reader is receiving message from a writer. In the past various writers have also referred to reading as a decoding skill. This terminology derives from the idea of quarrel as a code, one which must be deciphered to go at the meaning of the messag e. Although this term points out the active role the reader must play in reading describe the reading process in a way that implies active reader intent upon using background knowledge and skills to recreate the writers intended meaning (p.216).Sengupta(2002) in her longitudinal study follow conceptual change in developing academic reading at tertiary level has given an interactive model for academic reading in which the readers background knowledge, his risk-taking, and meaning making through with(predicate) this interaction are of primary importance in academic reading. Figure 1 clearly illustrates this relation.HM.A1st sem researchtahririindex_filesfigure1.gifUndoubtedly, in order to be able to read in a foreign language, before anything, one has to be familiar with the signs and sign systems of that foreign language. Like the children learning their first languages signs, a person who wants to read in a foreign language has to know for warning what an X sign stands for. But we should have in mental capacity that children go under several preparatory processes before being able to read a text or a story. To get familiar with some of these multilevel processes, Smith and Elley (1997) conducted a study on teaching reading for children in New Zealand and they reported thatChildren are prepared for reading at an early age by listening to stories, being read to, and interacting with adults and others about the stories they hear. This is done not with the chief(prenominal) purpose of preparing a child for reading but as a way that parents and others interact with, show affection for, and entertain and educate children. The interaction involves asking questions about what is going to happen in the story, get the child to complete sentences in a known story, talking about the sakiing and scary parts of the story, and generally having fun (qtd. in Nation 3).As you can see in this example, children primarily pay attention to the meaning the sentences have and the form and pronunciation of the sentences whitethorn be of unforesightful concern for these little children. This awareness of sentence meaning and the techniques used to teach reading makes this kind of reading interaction largely meaning-focused and Nation (2009) states that it includes shared reading, guided reading and separatist reading. In shared reading, the students gather around the teacher and the teacher reads a story to the savants from a very large blown-up book while wake them the pictures and the scripted words. The second type is Guided reading which can be done silently or with a child reading aloud to a friend, parent or teacher. Before the reading the learner and teacher talk about the book (pp. 3-4). Several researches have shown the effectiveness of this kind of reading. One of them is the research done by Wong and McNaughton (1980)Research by Wong and McNaughton (1980) showed that for the learner they studied, pre-reading discussion dissolvented in a g reater share of words initially correct, and a greater percentage of errors self-corrected. The teacher and the learner look at the title of the book and make sure that all the words in the title are known. Then they talk about the pictures in the story and make predictions about what might happen in the story and talk about any knowledge the learner already has about the topic. Important words in the story are talked about but need not be pointed to in their written form. So, before the learner actually starts to read the story, the ideas and important words in the story are talked about and clarified. Then the learner begins to read (qtd. in Nation p.4).The third kind of meaning-focused reading is the independent reading in which the learner asks a book to read and quietly gets on with reading it. During this quiet period of class time, the teacher may also read or may use the time as an opportunity for individual learners to go far up to read to the teacher (Nation, 2009, p. 5 ).As you saw, learning to read in the first language seems quite swooning, but the way in which you learn reading in second language has its own problems. Taken from Nation (2009), some of these problems are illustrated in table 1(p.7)Table 1.1 L1/L2 Differences for an Individual Beginning to ReadCharacteristicsGeneral effectsParticular effectsL1 blood readers alreadyknow a lot of the languagethey are beginning to read(sounds, vocabulary,grammar, discourse). L2learners do not.Learning to read an L2involves a great deal oflanguage learning.L2 learners need verycontrolled texts.L2 learners need a greateramount of pre-readingactivities.L2 beginners can already readin their L1.L2 beginners have generalcognitive skills.They have preconceptionsand attitudes to reading.They have languagespecific skills.There will be interferenceand facilitation effectsbetween the L1 and L2L2 beginners do not needto learn what they cantransfer from the L1.They may need to changetheir attitudes to reading. Learners may have tolearn a different writingsystem.L2 beginners are commonlyolder than L1 beginners.L2 learners have greatermetalinguistic andmetacognitive awarenessIt is easy to transfer L1skills.L2 learners can use moreexplicit approaches andtools like dictionaries.This table has been kept simple by focusing on only one learner who is just beginning to read. It is more complicated if you have several learners with different L1s, different L2 proficiencies, different L1 reading proficiencies, and different motivations for reading.Reading also requires having different strategies. These reading strategies are grouped into different categories, according to the preference of their writers. For example, www.readinga-z.com (n.d), has given the list of side by side(p) strategiesMaking PredictionsVisualizingAsking and Answering QuestionsSkimming and ScanningRetelling and SummarizingConnecting the Text to life Experiences, Other Texts, or Prior KnowledgeWord-Attack StrategiesThe first one is making predictions. By making predictions, you can make the reading more interesting. Incorrect predictions can signal a misunderstanding that needs to be revisited (www.readinga-z.com).In making predictions, you should have these points in your mindLook at the pictures, table of contents, chapter headings, maps, diagrams, and features. What subjects are in the book?Write down predictions about the text. During reading, look for words or phrases from those predictions.While reading, revise the predictions or make new ones (www.readinga-z.com).The second strategy is visualizing. In visualizing, the reader uses his mental power effectively and using shapes, spatial relationships, movement, and colors can benefit greatly from this strategy. This strategy also requires having the following points in mindImagine a fiction story taking base as if it were a movie. Imagine the characters features. Picture the plot in time and space.Imagine processes and explanations calamity visua lly. Use nouns, verbs, and adjectives to create pictures, diagrams, or other mental images.Use graphic organizers to lay out information. make sketches or diagrams on scrap paper (www.readinga-z.com).Lets go to the third strategy which is asking and answering questions. Using this strategy you have to ask different questions from yourself while reading and then by answering these questions you can direct your reading. Like the guidelines given in the previously mentioned strategies, readinga-z.com gives the following guidelines to usBefore reading, think about the subject based on the title, chapter heads, and visual information. Make note of anything you are curious about.While reading, pause and write down any questions. Be sure to ask questions if there is confusion.Look for the answers while reading. get out and write down the answers.Were all the questions answered? Could the answers come from other sources? Then we come to the skimming and scanning. Lindsay and Knight (2006) give credit to these skills by saying that the ability to read something apace and efficiently is an important skill for learners to acquire. Skimming and scanning are two of this (p.71).They define skimming as the reading for gist without trying to understand everything in it. In this process, you read through the text to get a general idea of what it is about, while in scanning you want to find out about something specific, for example get a particular piece of information from a text (Lindsay and Knight, 2006, p.72).The next reading strategy is Retelling and Summarizing during which you have to paraphrase the written materials and summarize it and be able to discriminate between of import ideas and minor details (readinga-z.com). In this strategy, readinga-z.com recommends us to pay attention to the following pointsDuring reading, note the main ideas or events. Put a check mark in the book or write a note to point out a main idea.At the ends of chapters or sections, review the information or story. Note main ideas or events and the details that support them.After reading, retell or summarize the text. focalization on the important points, and support them with relevant details.Refer to the book to check the retelling or summarization. The last point to mention in the reading strategies refers to the use of word-attack strategies which suffice students decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar words. They help students attack words piece by piece or from a different angle (readinga-z.com).Using word-attack skills, you can put down the difficulties of reading process. Reducing the scale of the problem by ignoring inessential words is the first step. Next, students must require strategies for dealing with lexical items that really block cognition (Nuttall, 1996, p.69). Here we shall discuss three kinds of them the first is the interpretation of structural clues by looking at the position of a word in a sentence, induction from context is the next wh ich is a skill we have in our L1 and for less fluent students conscious use of it is valuable. By using it, they can get a meaning not necessarily completely accurate, but enough for their purpose (Nuttall, 1996, pp.69-72).Using a dictionary is the last skill the use of which is both disapprove and encouraged. It is discouraged because of the usual tendency to use them far too often (Nuttall, 1996, p.76). I think there is no need to explain why a dictionary is encouraged.For using a dictionary, Nuttall (1996) emphasizes the implementation of the following stepsThe first step towards using the dictionary as a tool instead of a crutch is to decide which word to look upand to accept that they should be as few as possible. Having decided to look up a word, we want to do it quickly and to make the best use of the information in the dictionary (p.76).It is necessary to have continual insistence on the use of this skill. This means you should make normal use of the dictionary in class (even though it is quicker to give the meaning yourself) and that it should be the student who select the arrogate definition (Nuttall, 1996, p.76).Among the others, Krashen and Terrell (1983) outline the following communicative reading strategy1. Read for meaning2. Dont look up every word3. Predict meaning4. Use context (qtd. in Chastain 225)Finally, we come to the selection of materials for reading. Selection of appropriate reading materials is a crucial component in the establishment of a productive reading program (Chastain, 1988, p.231). Defending the describe of the selection of the materials, Doff(1988) has given some factors for the selection of materials to considerIn normal life, we do not normally read because we have to but because we want to. We usually have a purpose in reading there is something we want to find out, some information we want to check or clarify, some doctrine we want to match against our own, etc. We also have a purpose in reading when we read stori es for pleasure we want to find out how the story develops, what happens next (p.170).As we can infer from the given text, it is the learners interests and needs which initially shapes the selection of materials, so the first factor to consider in the selection of the appropriate reading materials can be the interests and goals of the learner. Chastain (1988) emphasizes the importance of this point more than linguistic complexity by stating thatWith the advent of the concept of reading as taking place within the readers head as he interacts with the words on the page, the readers willingness to continue the process of recreating meaning until the authors message is understood becomes central to reading process. Thus interest in the content rises to a level of importance higher than that of linguistic complexity because no reading will take place if readers are not interested enough to continue reading. However, if they are really interested in knowing what author has to say, they wi ll make every effort to understand the reading (p.231).Here Chastain (1988) raises a question students interests cover an enormous range of topics, trying to satisfy all would be impossible (p.231). Then, what would we do in selecting materials while at the same time we are going to consider the students interests? The answer is so simple. We can use a variety of procedures to select the reading materials from among the students interests. For example, they (the teachers) can choose readings with which students have some familiarities, or they can use prereading activities to generate interest and even enthusiasm for the content of selected reading. They can even survey the students interests later in the course and attempt to incorporate into the course reading on some of the mentioned topics (Chastain, 1988, p.231).The second factor in selecting the reading materials is the factor of readability which is determined through linguistic analysis of the authors language (Chastain, 19 88, p.232).Nuttall (1996) defines readability as combination of structural and lexical difficulty and further explains that since the language of a text maybe difficult for one student and easy for another, it is necessary to assess the right level for students you teach (p.174). It is obvious that if the text would be beyond the readers power of comprehension, soon he will be frustrated and he may put it aside and, like what I did with the the hills like white elephants So the text should be analyse through the factor of readability before being processed by the reader. Readability of a text can be analyzed from many ways. For example computer programs and the way they process the data you when you give the sample from the text. Some readability indexes like Harrison 1980 and Chall 1984 are frequently used to calculate readability (Nuttall, 1996, p.175).As you pay attention to the level of readability of the text, you should also be aware of the other detriment of reading comprehe nsion Syntactic restraint.Bernhardt (1948) points out that syntactic simplicity may decrease text cohesion and thereby hinder comprehension (qtd. in Chastain 232).Now, we shall go to the last factor in selecting the reading materials which is the use of the bona fide materials. Nuttall (1996) comments that they can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for real life purpose by real people (p.172). Chastain (1988) defines authentic materials as follows Generally, any text that an author writes to be able to communicate some message is authentic because it has an authentic purpose and it conforms to authentic language use (p.233).This definition of the authentic materials is different from the definitions given by some other authors who define authentic materials as those texts written for use by the foreign language community, not for language learners (Nuttall, 1996, p.177). Byrnes (1985) clearly explains the reason why some people only label the texts writ ten by native speakers as authentic materials Due to the problems students have with such texts because they are unfamiliar with the culture, one may think of material written by native speakers for language users as being authentic (qtd. in Chastain 232).Chastain (1988) comments on which types of authentic materials are good for L2 readers specially for students and which types are not by stating thatSupervisors and teachers of language courses may choose more academic types of reading such as articles, essays, short stories, plays, and novels, and these works certainly are important. One purpose of education is to expose students to high quality writing and to stimulating intellectual ideas from the cultures writers. However, never being exposed to some of the more common types of reading that they do in their native culture such as advertisements, notices, TV schedules, bulletins, manuals, programs, newspapers, and menus may result in students who are unable to read things they will need most to be able to read in the foreign culture (p.233).In this paper, we looked at reading from three major viewpoints and the impact they could have on improving the reading. I often use the reading strategies just mentioned in this paper, but whenever a story like elephants like white hills wants to irritate me, a sense from deep inside my heart tells me that give it up

Impact of Increased Temperature on Delosperma Cooperi Pollen

Impact of Increased Temperature on Delosperma Cooperi PollenEunice OhThe Impact of Increased Temperature due to Global Warming on Pollen Germination ofDelospermaCooperi introThere is an ongoing crisis that is beginning to influence ecosystems throughout the world,which may lead to largescalenatural disasters due to the rise in temperature from global warming. correspond to NASAs Goddard Institute for Space studies,0.8Chave increased around the world since 1880. In addition, the rise in temperature is pervasive andisincreasing at a faster rate in the last two decades (SITE1). This warming phenomenon end disturb ecosystemsandlead to extinction in extreme cases.Such ecosystems be restricted on plant growth and proliferation to sustain itself.Therefore, an experimentation toobservethe imports ofa significantrise in temperature on pollen germination was conducted to predict the adaptability ofDelopspermacooperi,acommon species oficeplantgrown around the world, tothis phenomenon.TDe losperma cooperi(trailing iceplant) was compared toTulbaghia violacea(society garlic)to obtain a broader view of how different plants from the same milieu would react to a distinct change in temperature.An increase of 10C was chosen as the variable to performanalysis with the Q10temperature coefficient.Pollen is a fine powder that contains microgametophytes of seed plants and produces male gametes. When pollination occurs, the pollen instillgerminates and a tube is producedas a conduit to transport the male gametes from the stigma to the pistilsof the ovule in flowering plants(SITE2). In nature, germination occurswhen the stigma is hydrated fromwatersources (e.g. rain). can also be inducedin vitrousingagermination media andthehanging drop method (SITE 3).Three replicates were observed the wereanalyzedwithstatisticstomeasure the substance of the variable(via a T-test, and Dixon Q). The plants temperature dependence was quantified with the Q10temperature coefficient. It was predict edthat the increase in temperature would result ina significant improvement ofpollen germination rateand semipermanent pollen tubes than the go steadydue toDelospermacooperisadaptive traits (quote).Materials and MethodsGermination ofDelospermacooperiwas induced in basic germination media, composed of1mM KCl, 0.1mM CaCl2, 1.6mM H3BO3, 10% glucose,and distilled water. Standard labequipments wereused lightnessmicroscope,gardengaskets, depression slides, slides warmer, petri dish,and micropipettes. The light microscope was used under the 10x objective to track the germination process and measure the wing of pollen tubes. Toaccommodatefora large have volume (50Ltransferred using micropipettes), garden gaskets were employed to extend the capacity of the depression slides.Aslides warmerwas used to maintain the high temperature environment (37C)andwetpetridishes wereutilized as germination chambers.The hanging drop method consistsof several steps. A gasket was placed on top of the slid e in holy order to create an area for the hanging drop to be intact with the cover slideand held together with grease. The slides were placed in the humiditychamber toallow germination andprevent drying. Two sets of the hanging drops were prepared, one for the high temperature (37C),and another for thepositivecontrol(27C). The negative control was prepared by observing the pollen without either germination media.Statistical analysis methodologyThegerminationelongation rates were recordedby sampling fivepollentubes from each slide in 30 minutesintervals, up to 150 minutes.This data was analyzedusing biostatistics.ADixonQ test was performed to identify and remove outliers.TheDixon Q testwas calculated using the equation, Q= (gap)/(range). The gap refers to the unconditional difference between the outlier and the closest number to the outlierand the range is simply between the smallest and largest values(CITE). After the elimination of outliers from the Dixon Q test, a schoolchild T-Test(with a 95% agency interval)was performed to determine whether the variables were statistically significant in the difference of their elongation ratesusing P values(SITE).Finally, aQ10value was determined from the mean ofelongationrates.It was calculated by using the following equation Q10= (R2/R1)10/(T2-T1).Q10is a unit-less measurement thatquantifythe change of a biological systemdue to temperature change.ResultsThe purpose of the experiment was tomeasure theelongation rates after every 30 minute interval, 32 points of data were obtained and analyzed.Overall, the elongation rateofDelosperma cooperifor the hightemperature variable was as some(prenominal) as threetimes fastercompared to the controltemperature(0.686m/min vs.0.278m/min)in trial three.The percent germination wasalsonoticeably wear for thehigh temperature variableversus the control, whereit wasapproximately 60% compared to 20%after 120minutes from initiation.From the list of data, theDixon Q-test result indic ated the data point 0.780m/min of the higher temperature control as an outlierwith a 95% confidence level.The mean elongation rate for the room temperature was 0.314m/min and 0.454m/min for the higher temperature control.The student T-Testyieldeda P value of 0.0447, which indicatesthat the result is statistically significant at a 95% confidence interval.TheQ10temperature coefficientfor Delosperma cooperiwas calculated to be3.59, categorized as a temperature dependent biological system.Figure 1.The graph shows the averageelongationrates ofDelospermacooperiat two differenttemperatures. The tubule elongation rate was0.314m/minfor the control and0.454m/minfor the variable. Error nix denote one standard deviation(0.152m/minand0.177m/min, respectively)above and below the mean.Figure2. The graph shows the average elongation rates ofTulbaghiaViolaceaat two differenttemperatures. The tubule elongation rate was17.4m/min for the control and3.00m/min for the variable. Error bars denote one st andard deviation (1.95m/minand0.279m/min, respectively)above and below the mean.DiscussionThe results appear to support the hypothesis, whereDelospermacooperiwas positively affected by the increasedtemperatureby approximatelya 0.140m/minand 40% germinationimprovement.The result shows that the higher temperature yielded in an improvement in both per centum germination and pollen tube length growthat a significant level (P10value is higher than 2. Q10is a unit-less measurement that establish a temperature coefficientthat correlates a systems change to temperature difference(of 10C)(SITE 4) In addition,thehigher percentage germination was observed from the higher temperature controlcorrespond to an articlein whichDelosperma cooperiis more adapted to a higher temperature environmentdue toincreased metabolic rate under temperature stress(SITE 5).The results ofDelopsermacooperiwere compared withTulbaghiaviolaceaand suggest that the increased temperature had the opposite effect onTulbaghi aviolacea, wherepollen germination percentage and pollen tube growth were more effective in the room temperature control.Tulbaghia violaceais known to be better suited in the colder environmentwhile hightemperaturesrestrict their germination (SITE 6). However, the data was determined to be not significantly significant.(P0.6).A possible future experiment includes testing a greater variety of indigenousflower pollensunder more temperature variances. The experiment provided a glimpse into how certain plants would respond tothe consequences ofglobalwarmingand more studies are needed for a more comprehensive overview.ReferencesLeistner, O. A. (ed.). 2000.Seed plants of southern Africa families and genera. Strelitzia10. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria.Mozaffar Ebrahim Edmund John Pool (2010). The effect ofTulbaghiaviolaceaextracts on testosterone secretion by testicular cell cultures.Journal ofEthnopharmacology132(1) 359361Reyes, A.B.,Pendergast, J.S., andYamazaki, S. 2008. Mamma lian peripheral circadian oscillators are temperature compensated. J.Biol. Rhythms 23 95-98.Global Warming Facts. 2007. National Geographic.http//news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/12/1206_041206_global_warming.htmlRaven, Peter H. Ray F. Evert, Susan E. Eichhorn (2005).Biology of Plants, seventh Edition. New York W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers. pp.504508.Pfahler PL (1981).In vitro germination characteristics of maize pollen to detect biological activity of environmental pollutants. Health Perspect.37 12532.Reyes, A.B.,Pendergast, J.S., and Yamazaki, S. 2008. Mammalian peripheral circadian oscillators are temperature compensated. J.Biol. Rhythms 23 95-98.RinnanR, Steinke M,McGenityT, Loreto F. Plant volatiles in extreme terrestrial and marine environments.Plant Cell Environ. 2014 Mar 7.http//autocite.durkmed.com/

Grammar in the Classroom :: Teachers Education Language Essays

Grammar in the ClassroomA large part of an English teachers line of business deals with helping students find their own voices amidst the many teachings of their parents and peers. A students voice can be their values, their interests, and their perspectives of the world in which they live. Their voice can be their critical questioning of the many situations they face, whether in a text, the school cafeteria, or a park after school. It is the job of an English teacher to aid in finding this voice through their writing. It is by putting words and thoughts down on paper that a student can sometimes feel satisfactory enough to take risks and find their true voices. Although traditional grammar instruction has long been thought to improve this skill, this is no longer the case. Instead, by providing a classroom milieu in which students are immersed in classic literature from many genres including poetry, short stories, and novels, students will learn how to harness grammar for their o wn purposes of finding their voice in their writing. instead than teach grammar initially and hope that students connect their drilling exercises of subjects and verbs to the poem theyre working on, teaching the varieties of literature first allows students to gain first-hand experience and familiarity with grammar already in practice. This is not to say that grammar lessons and terminology should be lost altogether. A student will not be better off if they never learn subject-verb agreement. However, their characterization to examples of these uses should come first, leaving the labeling and grammar jargon to a time when their minds have already seen how these nouns and verbs can be used. Thats the key phrase can be used. Students lack to understand that they have control and authority over their work. They should have space enough to understand that although a sentence should be written in a certain way, it does not always have to be straightforward grammar if theyd like to cha nge something stylistically. For example, while teaching a lesson on the poem l(a by E.E. Cummings, students might be confused and puzzled as to the form of this unusual piece. However, they should then be invited to challenge Cummingss lack of traditional grammar and stylistic choices. Some may be angry at its unique appearance, while others may grasp the significance of the form and its effect on the reader.

The Messiah Essay -- Musicians Handel The Messiah Essays

The MessiahHandels classic particle, The Messiah is un queryedly the best selection as our classes choice for the time capsule. It has only the workings of a true musical masterpiece and a beautiful message that all should know. Our song should be chosen as a piece that has sleep togetherd, will live on, and does justice to music. That is The Messiah.Many of you (including myself) didnt quite realize who Handel was, let alone know his oratorio The Messiah. Once Joel began to play it in class, the coarse phrase shifted from, What?, to, Oh, the hallelujah song. It is a piece that nearly anyone, of any generation, knows at least by its famous chorus, Hallelujah. That is a lot to say for one song. How many of your parents in reality know anything nigh the music you listen to? Most of the music of today just kind of fades in and then back out, which is just not the incident with The Messiah. For more than 250 years, this dandy and most popular of oratorios has survived and endured numerous revisions and reorchestrations in performances ranging from cast of thousands to todays emphasis on authentic performances, a practice employing period instruments and small all-male chorale ensembles(Wilson). When Christmas season roles around, everyone pile count on hearing Handels own personal favorite The Messiah. This is the kind of song we need, something that links us through prevalent knowledge and feeling, knightly and present. Handel combines the sheer grandeur and power of his German roots with the color of his Italian experience, joining this with the unique flavor of the English language(Alexander). His music whoremaster thus be powerful, it can be colorful and lively(like the wonderful For unto us a child is born chorus), or it can be stirri... ...apacity for self-renewal. We become aware that it bestows on us the special gift of aesthetic and spiritual grace. There is not one portion of this song that should make us disregard it. hark back of your fa vorite song. at present think of what time span it has touched or will touch. Okay, think of its actually artistic quality. Lastly, think of what message, what feeling its nerve-racking to convey. I doubt it it compares in all aspects to the Messiah. I think youll agree this is the song that deserves the spot in the UTD time capsule.Works CitedAlexander, Sean. http//www.ao.net/jmo/john/music/handelt.html).Del Rio, Chris.http//www.inkpot.com/ sheer/messiah.html.McEown, Nathen. http//www.psg.com/patf/bach/messiah.html.Mulchevy , Michael. Ved Head. paradiddle Stone June 1995 46-48.Wilson, Jason.http//www.hartfordchorale.org/Messiah.html. The Messiah Essay -- Musicians Handel The Messiah EssaysThe MessiahHandels classic piece, The Messiah is undoubtedly the best selection as our classes choice for the time capsule. It has all the workings of a true musical masterpiece and a beautiful message that all should know. Our song should be chosen as a piece that has lived, wi ll live on, and does justice to music. That is The Messiah.Many of you (including myself) didnt quite realize who Handel was, let alone know his oratorio The Messiah. Once Joel began to play it in class, the common phrase shifted from, What?, to, Oh, the hallelujah song. It is a piece that nearly anyone, of any generation, knows at least by its famous chorus, Hallelujah. That is a lot to say for one song. How many of your parents actually know anything about the music you listen to? Most of the music of today just kind of fades in and then back out, which is just not the case with The Messiah. For more than 250 years, this great and most popular of oratorios has survived and endured numerous revisions and reorchestrations in performances ranging from cast of thousands to todays emphasis on authentic performances, a practice employing period instruments and small all-male choral ensembles(Wilson). When Christmas season roles around, everyone can count on hearing Handels own personal favorite The Messiah. This is the kind of song we need, something that links us through common knowledge and feeling, past and present. Handel combines the sheer grandeur and power of his German roots with the color of his Italian experience, joining this with the unique flavor of the English language(Alexander). His music can thus be powerful, it can be colorful and lively(like the wonderful For unto us a child is born chorus), or it can be stirri... ...apacity for self-renewal. We become aware that it bestows on us the special gift of aesthetic and spiritual grace. There is not one portion of this song that should make us disregard it. Think of your favorite song. Now think of what time span it has touched or will touch. Okay, think of its actually artistic quality. Lastly, think of what message, what feeling its trying to convey. I doubt it it compares in all aspects to the Messiah. I think youll agree this is the song that deserves the spot in the UTD time capsule.Works CitedAl exander, Sean. http//www.ao.net/jmo/john/music/handelt.html).Del Rio, Chris.http//www.inkpot.com/classical/messiah.html.McEown, Nathen. http//www.psg.com/patf/bach/messiah.html.Mulchevy , Michael. Ved Head. Rolling Stone June 1995 46-48.Wilson, Jason.http//www.hartfordchorale.org/Messiah.html.